Critical Minerals in Energy
The energy transition is also a minerals transition. Solar PV, offshore wind, grid-scale battery storage, electric vehicles, and nuclear power all require substantially more minerals per unit of energy capacity than fossil fuel equivalents.
Clean energy runs on minerals, not just electrons.
An energy system powered by clean technology differs fundamentally from one fueled by hydrocarbons. Solar plants, wind farms, and electric vehicles generally require significantly more minerals to build than their fossil fuel counterparts. A typical electric vehicle contains roughly six times more minerals by mass than a conventional car.
High-voltage transmission lines connecting remote renewable generation sites to urban load centers require massive volumes of copper and electrical-grade aluminum. Grid-scale battery storage systems use lithium, graphite, nickel, cobalt, and manganese. Wind turbines depend on rare earth permanent magnets and hundreds of tonnes of steel per unit.
Energy-Critical Minerals
The energy transition depends on concentrated supply chains.
In 2025, the leading refining country accounted for an average of about 72% of refined supply across key energy minerals, excluding rare earths. For battery-grade graphite anode processing, concentration exceeds 90%.
Diversification projects face higher capital costs, limited equipment suppliers, technical know-how gaps, infrastructure constraints, and longer permitting timelines — often measured in decades.
Source: International Energy Agency, Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2026.